ABSTRACT One of the main challenges in the clinical management of dengue is the early identification of cases that could progress to severe forms of the disease. A biomarker that may enable this identification is the presence of genetic polymorphisms in genes associated with immune responses. The objective of this study was to perform a systematic review of the Latin American literature on these genes. An electronic literature search was carried out in PubMed, Scopus, Lilacs, and the Virtual Health Library, and reference lists of systematic reviews in the area. Case-control studies conducted in Latin American countries examining at least one form of genetic polymorphism related to immune responses against severe dengue were included. In total, 424 articles were identified and 26 were included in this systematic review. Of the 26 selected articles, 16 reported polymorphisms associated with the risk of developing severe dengue (Risk); Similarly, 16 articles reported polymorphisms associated with a decreased risk of severe dengue (Protective). The final analysis revealed that multiple polymorphisms in immune system genes were early markers of the progression of dengue in Latin Americans and found that polymorphisms of the TNF-alpha gene may have a critical role in dengue pathogenesis.

The region of Antioquia in northeastern Colombia has the highest number of reported leptospirosis cases in the country. It also shows high seroprevalence indexes in the general population and socio-environmental conditions favourable for the transmission of the disease between humans and animals. In this study, 25 Leptospira isolates from Colombia’s Antioquia department were identified to the species level as L. santarosai (12), L. interrogans (9) and L. meyeri (4) using phylogenetic analysis of the Amidohydrolase gene. Typing at the serovar level was performed using multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and monoclonal antibodies. The serovars Canalzonae, Babudieri, Alice, Beye, and Copenhageni have been identified as causing human or animal infections in Antioquia, Colombia. The four environmental isolates were not identified to the serovar level. L. santarosai serovar Canalzonae and Alice were identified as new etiologic agents of human leptospirosis in Antioquia, Colombia. This paper reports species and serovars that were previously unknown in the region.

Leptospirosis is a widespread zoonosis in tropical regions. The prevalence is unknown in the Colombian region of Uraba. A cross sectional study was conducted from March to October 2000 in order to determine the prevalence of Leptospira spp. antibodies and describe risk factors in nine counties in the region. The sample consisted of 582 individuals, who answered a questionnaire and had blood samples drawn to determine risk factors. Detection of Leptospira spp. antibodies was based on indirect inmunofluorescence and microagglutination. Seroprevalence was 12.5% (95%CI: 10.01-15.5). No differences were observed according to race, gender, occupation, age, living conditions, or time of residence in the area. L .interrogans serovar Grippotyphosa was the most prevalent species, identified in 53 individuals. Titers were > 1:400 in 38 seropositive individuals. In conclusion, there is a high prevalence of Leptospira spp. antibodies in the area, where it is thus necessary to establish control measures to decrease the risk of environmental exposure to leptospirosis.

Leptospirosis es una zoonosis de gran incidencia en regiones tropicales. Su prevalencia es desconocida en la región del Urabá colombiano. Entre marzo y octubre del año 2000 se realizó un estudio descriptivo de corte para determinar la seroprevalencia de anticuerpos contra Leptospira spp. y describir algunos factores de riesgo en nueve municipios del Urabá. La población incluida fue de 582 personas a las cuales se les tomó una muestra de sangre y se le aplicó una encuesta sobre factores de riesgo. La detección de anticuerpos contra Leptospira spp. fue realizada por inmunofluorescencia indirecta y por microaglutinación. La seroprevalencia general en la zona fue 12,5% (IC95%: 10,01-15,5). No hubo diferencias en cuanto al sexo, raza, oficio, edad, años de residencia en la zona y características de la vivienda. L. interrogans serovar Grippotyphosa fue la especie más prevalente, identificándose en 53 de los seropositivos. En 38 seropositivos los títulos detectados fueron iguales o mayores a 1:400. En conclusión, existe alta prevalencia de anticuerpos contra Leptospira spp. Es necesario orientar las medidas de control para disminuir el riesgo de exposición ambiental a leptospirosis por parte de los habitantes de la zona.

Leptospirosis is a widespread zoonosis in tropical regions. The prevalence is unknown in the Colombian region of Uraba. A cross sectional study was conducted from March to October 2000 in order to determine the prevalence of Leptospira spp. antibodies and describe risk factors in nine counties in the region. The sample consisted of 582 individuals, who answered a questionnaire and had blood samples drawn to determine risk factors. Detection of Leptospira spp. antibodies was based on indirect inmunofluorescence and microagglutination. Seroprevalence was 12.5% (95%CI: 10.01-15.5). No differences were observed according to race, gender, occupation, age, living conditions, or time of residence in the area. L .interrogans serovar Grippotyphosa was the most prevalent species, identified in 53 individuals. Titers were > 1:400 in 38 seropositive individuals. In conclusion, there is a high prevalence of Leptospira spp. antibodies in the area, where it is thus necessary to establish control measures to decrease the risk of environmental exposure to leptospirosis.

Leptospirosis es una zoonosis de gran incidencia en regiones tropicales. Su prevalencia es desconocida en la región del Urabá colombiano. Entre marzo y octubre del año 2000 se realizó un estudio descriptivo de corte para determinar la seroprevalencia de anticuerpos contra Leptospira spp. y describir algunos factores de riesgo en nueve municipios del Urabá. La población incluida fue de 582 personas a las cuales se les tomó una muestra de sangre y se le aplicó una encuesta sobre factores de riesgo. La detección de anticuerpos contra Leptospira spp. fue realizada por inmunofluorescencia indirecta y por microaglutinación. La seroprevalencia general en la zona fue 12,5% (IC95%: 10,01-15,5). No hubo diferencias en cuanto al sexo, raza, oficio, edad, años de residencia en la zona y características de la vivienda. L. interrogans serovar Grippotyphosa fue la especie más prevalente, identificándose en 53 de los seropositivos. En 38 seropositivos los títulos detectados fueron iguales o mayores a 1:400. En conclusión, existe alta prevalencia de anticuerpos contra Leptospira spp. Es necesario orientar las medidas de control para disminuir el riesgo de exposición ambiental a leptospirosis por parte de los habitantes de la zona.

Introducción. La caracterización de los brotes de fiebre tifoidea es importante epidemiológicamente, debido a que esto permite la búsqueda de la fuente y el desarrollo de medidas de control. Objetivo. Describir un brote de fiebre tifoidea en el municipio de Apartadó y caracterizar fenotípica y genotípicamente los aislamientos de Salmonella Typhi relacionados con él. Materiales y métodos. Se estudiaron 44 pacientes, a 15 de ellos se les tomaron muestras para hemocultivos y a 7, muestras para coprocultivos. Los aislamientos bacterianos se estudiaron con pruebas bioquímicas y serotipificación y se determinó el perfil de susceptibilidad a antibióticos. Los aislamientos se evaluaron genotípicamente por reacción en cadena de la polimerasa para los genes hilA, invA e IS-200, y por electroforesis en campo pulsado con XbaI. Se estudiaron ocho muestras de agua asociadas al brote por reacción en cadena de la polimerasa y cultivo para la búsqueda de Salmonella. Resultados. A 15/44 pacientes se les confirmó el diagnóstico clínico de fiebre tifoidea, a 13 por hemocultivos y a 2 por coprocultivos positivos para S. Typhi. Todos los aislamientos de S. Typhi fueron sensibles a los antibióticos probados. La reacción en cadena de la polimerasa confirmó la presencia de los genes hilA y invA e IS-200 en todos los aislamientos estudiados. La electroforesis en campo pulsado agrupó 10 aislamientos en el patrón COINJPP.X01.0035, tres en el patrón COINJPPX01.0002, uno COINJPP.X01.0012 y uno COINJPPX01.0037. El estudio de aguas fue negativo para Salmonella spp. Conclusiones. La electroforesis en campo pulsado estableció la presencia de dos brotes, que inicialmente, por epidemiología y pruebas fenotípicas del patógeno, habían sido descritos como uno solo. Además, permitió diferenciar dos aislamientos de origen clonal diferente, que indicaron casos aislados. No se pudo corroborar la fuente de infección en el agua.

Introduction. The characterization of typhoid fever outbreaks is important because it is necessary to find the source of the infection and development control measures. Objective. A typhoid fever outbreak is described from Apartadó and the Salmonella Typhi isolates characterized by phenotypic and genotypic methods. Materials and methods. From 44 patients, 15 blood cultures and 7 stools cultures were recovered. Phenotypic identification of isolates was done by biochemical and serological tests, and antibiotic susceptibility was tested. Genes hilA, invA and the IS200 marker were evaluated by polymerase chain reaction; pulsed field gel electrophoresis was used for the XbaI gene. Eight water samples were examined by polymerase chain reaction and culture methods in order to isolate Salmonella spp. Results. Fifteen patients were confirmed for typhoid fever, 13 by blood cultures and two by stools cultures. All S. Typhi isolates were susceptible to the antimicrobials tested. The presence of hilA, invA and IS200 were confirmed by polymerase chain reaction in all isolates. The pulsed field gel electrophoresis method grouped 10 isolates in COINJPP.X01.0035 pattern, three in COINJPPX01.0002, one in COINJPP.X01.0012 and one in COINJPPX01.0037. Water isolates were negatives for Salmonella spp. Conclusions. Pulsed field gel electrophoresis discriminated the isolates in two outbreaks. Initially the cases were described as only one outbreak, by epidemiological criteria and phenotypic test. Additionally two isolates with different clonal origin were discriminated, indicating that they were unrelated to the other cases. It was not possible to confirm the infection source from water samples.

Dois inquéritos sorológicos para a infecção chagásica foram realizados, respectivamente em 1991 e 1993, em amostras por conglomerado familiar na população da cidade de Barcelos, utilizando-se a reação de imunofluorescência indireta para anticorpos anti-T. cruzi. No primeiro inquérito de 628 amostras de sangue de residentes em 142 domicílios, 12,7% foram positivas para anticorpos anti-T. cruzi; no segundo inquérito de 658 amostras de sangue de residentes em 171 domicílios, 13,7% foram positivas, confirmando os resultados anteriores. De 170 indivíduos com sorologia positiva para infecção chagásica 112 (66%) compareceram para entrevista e para exame clínico e eletrocardiográfico. Destes 82 (73,2%) submeteram-se ao xenodiagnóstico. Dos 112 entrevistados, 52 (46,4%) reconheceram o triatomíneo como "piolho da piaçava", 48 (42,8%) disseram existir em seus locais de trabalho, geralmente em piaçavais na área rural e 19(16,9%) disseram já terem sido picados pelo inseto. Dos 82 xenodiagnósticos aplicados, 2 (2,4%) foram positivos para T. cruzi. Apenas 9 (8%) dos 112 ECG realizados tinham alterações compatíveis com a doença de Chagas. As evidências demonstram que a infecção chagásica na área tem características profissionais, é transmitida pelo contato com triatomíneos silvestres e que a cepa de T. cruzi circulante é de baixa virulência e patogenicidade, possivelmente por ser silvestre e ainda não adaptada ao homem.

Two serological surveys for Chagas' infection were carried out, in 1991 and 1993, respectively, using a conglomerate family samples from the residents in the town of Barcelos (in the northern part of the State of Amazonas, on the right bank of the Rio Negro, 490 Km up-river from Manaus), using indirect immunofluorescent tests for anti-T. cruzi antibodies. In the first survey (1991), 628 blood samples from the residents of 142 dwellings were tested, showing positive in 12.7% for anti-T. cruzi antibodies and in 1993 an other 658 samples from residents of 171 dwellings showed positive in 13.7% of the tests, thus confirming the previous results. From 170 individuals with positive serology for T. cruzi antibodies, 112 (66%) were interviewed and submitted to electrocardiographic and clinical examinations; 82 (73.2%) of them gave consent for xenodiagnosis. From the 112 interviewed 52 (46.4%) recognized the triatomines as "piaçavas' lice", 48 (42.8%) knew the bugs from their work places being gatherers of piaçava fibers in rural areas and 19 (16.9%) said that have been bitten by bugs in their huts. Only 2 (2.4%) of 82 xenodiagnosis applied were positive for T. cruzi and 9 (8%) of the ECG had alterations compatible with Chagas' disease.

Foi realizado um inquérito sorológico através da reação de imunofluorescência indireta em uma amostra de soro sanguíneo da população residente em uma em cada cinco casas habitadas na sede do município de Barcelos, localizado no norte do Estado do Amazonas, na margem direita do Rio Negro, a 490 km de Manaus por via fluvial e na população das localidades rurais de Piloto e Marará, localizadas também na margem direita do Rio Negro, a 30 minutos por via fluvial da sede do município de Barcelos. No total foram utilizadas no inquérito 710 amostras de soro, 628 de pessoas residentes na sede do município, 35 residentes em Piloto e 47 em Marará. Foi utilizada anti-gamaglobulina humana do tipo IgG (Bio-lab) e como antígeno cultura formolizada da cepa Y do T.cruzi. Os soros foram diluidos em PBS pH 7.2 a partir de 1:40 até 1:320. Das 710 amostras de soro examinadas 89 (12,5%) foram positivas para anticorpos anti-T. cruzi; 2 (2,2%) com títulos de 1:320, 12 (13,4%) com títulos de 1:60, 38 (42,6%) com títulos de 1:80 e os demais com títulos de 1:40, portanto com a mediana dos títulos sorológicos de 1:80. São discutidos a alta prevalência sorológica para infecção chagásica obtida no inquérito, as possibilidades de reações cruzadas e de testes confirmatórios das reações positivas e os dados epidemiológicos preliminares que indicam uma forte associação entre a infecção chagásica e o contacto da população com triatomíneos, conhecidos na área como "piolho de piaçava". Salienta-se o isolamento por xenodiagnóstico de uma cepa de T.cruzi de um dos pacientes do inquérito, com sorologia positiva, com título de 1:320 para infecção chagástica.

A serological survey, involving indirect immunofluorescence testing of blood sera samples, was carried out on the residents of one in every five dwellings in the town of Barcelos (in the northern part of the State of Amazonas, on the right bank of the Rio Negro, 490 Km from Manaus by river) and on the rural populations of the villages of Piloto and Marará (also on the right bank of the Rio Negro, 30 minutes by boat from Barcelos). A total of 710 sera samples were tested, 628 from the resident population in the town of Barcelos, 35 from Piloto and 47 from Marará. The tests were carried out using human anti-gammaglobulin type IgG (Biolab) and antigen from formolized culture of T.cruzi Y strain. The sera were serially diluted from 1:40 to 1:320 in PBS 7.2. Of the 710 samples examined 89(12.5%) were positive for anti-T.cruzi antibodies: 2 of these (2.2%) at a dilution of 1:320; 12(13.4%) at 1:160; 38 (42.6%) at 1:80; and the remainder at 1:40, giving a median serological dilution of 1:80. The following questions are discussed: the high serological prevalence for Chagas'infection found in our survey; the possibility of serological cross-reactions; the need for confirmatory tests for the positives reactions; and the strong correlation between our results and preliminary epidemiological data (such as the level of human contact with wild triatominae, know locally as "Piacava's lice". We draw attention to the isolation by xenodiagnosis of one strain of T.cruzi from a patient with positive serology for Chagas' infection.

Comprovou-se o "ataque" de triatomineos silvestres (Rhodnius brethesi) a colhedores de piaçava (Leopoldinia piaçaba), em piaçabal na localidade de Acuquaia, no Rio Padauari, afluente do Rio Negro, no Município de Barcelos, Estado do Amazonas, onde em trabalho anterior verificamos uma prevalência sorológica para anticorpos anti-T. cruzi em 12,5% da população na sede do município, com uma forte associação do contato dessa população com triatomineos silvestres, conhecidos na área como "piolho da piaçava", os quais vivem predominantemente nas piaçabeiras. O "ataque " de triatomineos a populações humanas foi possivelmente o mecanismo inicial de abordagem dos triatomineos ao homem, adaptando-se posteriormente ao seu peridomicílio e domicílio, principalmente em áreas desmaiadas ou de cerrado com poucos reservatórios silvestres. No caso do Amazonas, relatado neste trabalho, os triatomineos estavam provavelmente famintos por escassez de outros animais de sangue quente para sua alimentação.

An "attack" of wild triatomines (Rhodnius brethesi) topiaçaca workers (Leopoldinia piaçaba) is confirmed in the locality of Acuquaia, at Padauari river, affluent of Rio Negro in the municipality of Barcelos, State of Amazonas, Brazil. A serological prevalence of 12.5% for T. cruzi antibodies in human population, in the city of Barcelos, has already been described in a previous paper. A strong association between the serological positivity and the population contact with wild triatomines, known in the area as "piaçava's lice", was verified.